Emma Stewart Writes

Category: Writing Tips and Advice

Writing tips and advice

  • Wild Wednesday: Camouflage

    Wild Wednesday: Camouflage

    Can You See Me?

    Camouflage is a big deal in the natural world. It’s employed by both predators and prey species for a variety of reasons. They employ many techniques to mask their presence to hide from other animals. So if you’ve ever wondered why zebras have stripes or how a chameleon can change colour, you’re in the right place. Let’s get into it!

    Some Definitions

    • Crypsis: the ability of an organism to avoid observation or detection.
    • Disruptive colouration: a form of camouflage that works by breaking up the outlines with a strongly contrasting pattern. Military camouflage uses this.
    • Countershading: where the colouration is darker on top and lighter on the underside, which counters the effect of light coming from above on a 3D object, making it harder to detect.
    • Counterillumination: a related mechanism that uses illumination to match the brightness of a background, often employed by marine organisms like squid that have bioluminescence.
    • Mimicry: some animals have evolved to look like other things in order to hide from prey or predators, especially common in insects.

    Background Matching

    Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    Background matching is what it sounds like, animals that have colouration and patterns that match the background of their natural environment. So animals that live in the desert are coloured in sand, buff, ochre and brownish grey colours. Lions, gerbils, fennec foxes and desert reptiles like skinks or horned vipers are great examples.

    Disruptive Colouration

    This method uses strongly contrasting, non-repeating markings to break up the outline of the animal to help it blend in. This is the same principle behind military camouflage, which uses irregular patches of contrasting colours to hide their presence, matched to the environment they are in.

    Leopards use it to hide from prey while many prey species use it to hide from predators. So let’s play a little game, shall we? The image below is a ptarmigan and its chicks that are hiding in plain sight. Can you count how many chicks are in this photograph? (I’ll put the answer at the end!)

    Paxson Woelber, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    They’re very well hidden, aren’t they? It is incredibly effective. These features evolve due to natural selection. Animals that can evade predators better as babies will have a better chance to survive and pass on those traits to their own offspring.

    Counter Shading

    Original: Ian AlexanderVector version: CheChe, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    This image demonstrates how countershading works. It’s a method that reduces the animal’s shadow and makes it look flatter. The light hitting a darker part will create the flat colour and we see this in gazelles, sharkes and dolphins among others. This is known as Thayer’s Law and he created the next image.

    Thayer painted two model birds. The one the left is painted in the same colours as the background. The one on the right is there, I promise. You can make out an impression of the circular wire base to the right of the visible model, if you look closely. This model bird is counter shaded and makes it almost entirely invisible.

    An image of two model birds. The left is painted to match the background while the right one has countershading which makes it invisible.
    Abbot Thayer, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
    A horned lizard flattening its body to eliminate its shadow and blend into the sandy background.
    A horned lizard flattening itself – Public Domain

    Animals use other measures to eliminate their shadows. Horned lizards can flatten their bodies and their sides thin to an edge to blend in and avoid creating shadows at all. The horned lizards are found in North America. Bearded dragons also have this capability and they come from Australia. It’s obviously an effective technique for two species that have evolved so far apart.

    Crypsis

    This is a catch-all term for organisms that have methods of avoiding detection from other animals, such as camouflage, nocturnal living, underground living and mimicry. Concealment involves visual, olfactory or auditory concealment, or a combination of them.

    Decorator crabs grappling with each other, showing items they have attacked to their shells from the local environment.
    A pair of Sponge Decorator Crabs (Hyastenus elatus) grappling. Pipeline, Port Stephens, NSW
    Richard Ling, CC BY-SA 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    Decorator crabs collect items from the local area and add them to their carapace (shell) in order to blend in.

    Olfactory concealment involves hiding scents to avoid detection by prey or predators, or even trick other species. The large blue butterfly caterpillar can mimic ants to trick them into feeding the caterpillar. Puff adders make use of this type of crypsis as well.

    The reason most mammals lick their new-borns clean and eat the placenta is to mask the scenes. The idea is to make it less obvious that there are new-born animals around. So if anyone tells you that they eat the placenta for nutrients, that’s not quite correct. It has nutrients in it, of course, but it’s not essential. Humans have no natural predators so you do not have to eat your own baby’s placenta, unless you really want to.

    Mimicry

    Philipp Psurek, CC BY-SA 3.0 DE https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/deed.en, via Wikimedia Commons

    Can you see the mantis in this image? It is on top of the flowers closes to the camera. Stick insects, flower mantises like the orchid mantis, and even cuckoos employ mimicry.

    Cuckoos lay their eggs in the nests of other, smaller bird species. The egg looks similar so it won’t be rejected by the nest owner. Then the chick hatches and kicks out the other babies from the nest, so only it survives and is fed by the parent. Cuckoos are the real deadbeats of nature.

    Motion Dazzle

    Most of the camouflage methods we’ve discussed are broken by movement. Bold, contrasting markings help them hide by making it difficult to estimate their speed and direction when they move. The stripy horses, zebras, use this. They are striking to see as an individual but with an entire herd huddled together, it’s incredibly difficult to pick out one prison pony from the crowd. You have to really focus your eyes, even when they are moving. Nature invented optical illusions first.

    Colour Changing

    A panther chameleon is perched on a branch in an enclosure full of rocks and ferns. The chameleon has green, yellow, blue and red colouring across his body.
    Panther Chameleon – Sapporo Maruyama Zoo (Public Domain)

    Some animals can change colour. They have specialised chromatophore cells in their skin that can alter the wavelength of light they absorb, which creates the change in colour. This might be used to blend in to the environment, a trick octopuses use a lot.

    However, it can also be a form of signalling and communication. Meet nature’s mood ring: the chameleon. They usually change colour to show their mood. The change is very quick, before your eyes.

    There are some mammals that change colour but it’s far slower and generally seasonal. Arctic animals are brown or grey in the summer but they turn white in winter, via a seasonal moult that responds to changing temperatures and daylengths. Arctic foxes, arctic hares and stoats are great examples.

    Hiding

    Many animals burrow or hide their nests in remote spots. Maybe even using objects around them to disguise it’s presence. They might be more active at night when it’s easier to hide. Or they can disguise themselves underwater to ambush prey like alligators and crocodiles do. That’s why they don’t tend to chase you, they lunge at prey as it stops next to the water. If they miss, they give up quickly and wait for the next possible lunch to come along.

    Just to give ostriches some credit here. The whole ‘burying their head in the sand’ thing is not an indication that they’re so stupid they think they’re invisible when they do this. Yes, their brains are smaller than their eyeballs but they’re not that stupid. They dig in the sand to build their nests for their gigantic eggs.

    Ostriches don’t need to hide. They can run up to 45mph/72kmph. Even better, they can sustain 30mph/48kmph for a long time. They are faster than lions and they are faster than Usain Bolt. Why hide when you can run faster than basically anything else? Except maybe cheetahs. So let’s stop laughing at ostriches because they don’t deserve it.

    Aposematism – The Opposite of Camouflage

    Now for something completely different. Aposematism is the opposite of camouflage. There are some creatures that want you to see them. They want you to know they are there. And they want you to leave them the heck alone!

    Aposematism is defined by bold, bright colouration to serve as a warning. It means ‘I am dangerous. Go away. Get lost. I will destroy you.’ It is a warning you absolutely need to take seriously. In most cases.

    The danger could be a number of things. They might be poisonous – you die if you eat them. They might be venomous – you die if they bite or sting you. Or they might taste bad. Or they might just be very aggressive and want to give you a fair warning in rainbow hues. It’s nature’s way of saying FAFO. You shouldn’t want to find out.

    See wasps, poison dart frogs and nature’s own most fearless animal. The honey badger. Yes, really, this large mustelid will destroy you with prejudice. It is found across Africa, Southwest Asia and the Indian subcontinent. They are so feared that the people of Somalia believe one bite will make a man infertile! I’m sure the honey badger wants to make sure you know this is true, as well.

    Mark Norman, CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    The colours involved are often yellow, red and black in high contrast patterns but there’s a whole rainbow of danger out there. Here’s one of my favourite examples, the blue-ringed octopus. One of the deadliest sea creatures out there. He’s just a little guy but do not touch! No matter how small and cute it is. Blue means death. Like an old PC.

    I know the name’s not the most creative but it’s accurate and that makes it easily identifiable. Blue rings on an octopus means potential death. If in doubt, no matter how small, cute or colourful, just leave them be. Or call in an expert if there’s immediate danger.

    Which Snake Is Safe?

    Image is of a snake on a white background. The snake has yellow bands with black bands on either side, with red in between throughout the full length of its body.
    A Milk Snake – The original uploader was Dawson at English Wikipedia., CC BY-SA 2.5 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5, via Wikimedia Commons

    Another example is the milk snake and the coral snake. These snake species can resemble each other very closely. One is venomous and the other isn’t. Coral snake venom is rarely deadly to humans but it’s still useful to learn the difference if you live where they live.

    This is the milk snake. The yellow bands are surrounded by black bands, with the red ones in between them.

    The next image is of a coral snake, and this is the venomous version. It also has red, yellow and black bands but the pattern is different. However, I would always advise caution if you cannot confidently identify a snake species and leave them alone. Snakes rarely attack unprovoked.

    A snake is lying on the ground. It has black stripes with yellow stripes on either side, and red in between. It has similar colouration to the harmless milk snake, but the pattern of stripes is different and this helps identify if it is a venomous snake or not.
    A Coral Snake – Public Domain

    Copying the Aposematism

    Some species have caught on to the aposematism and use it to their advantage. They mimic similar species that have aposematism to share in the ‘back off’ message even though they are actually harmless. The hoverfly mimics wasps to deceive potential predators and be left alone. This is what’s known as Batesian mimicry.

    There is also Müllerian (note the u should have an umlaut) mimicry where harmful species have evolved to resemble each other. Many bee and wasp species do this and it is honest because both of them can sting. The yellow and black striping is common to many bee and wasp species. Batesian mimicry is deceptive, in contrast.

    Evolution of Camouflage

    It’s all pretty amazing stuff. Animals evolve in response to environmental pressures, in order to keep surviving. Many of these traits came about as random chance, mutations that were beneficial to survival. That allowed them to be genetically passed down and eventually shaped the species’ appearance or behaviour. Remember that evolution is a very slow process. It takes many, many generations to happen.

    It’s faster in simpler organisms like bacteria, because their reproductive generation takes hours. They’re single cells, mitosis is fast. Bacterial growth is exponential, their numbers double at regular intervals, depending on the kind of bacteria but it’s a matter of minutes. If you get a swab done for bacteria, entire colonies can grow within 24 hours on a petri dish. A colony is millions of bacteria.

    Larger organisms produce a new generation more slowly. In humans it’s around twenty years, give or take. So my grandmother is part of the Silent Generation (1928-1945ish), my parents are Boomers (1946-1964ish) and I’m an elder Millennial (1981-1996). That’s not a lot of generations for evolution to occur. It’s about 70 years for three generations to exist. But what will humanity look like in 10,000 years? Will we still have appendices (probably because it turns out they do have a function)? What about in 500,000 years? A million? We’ll not be around to see it, but maybe we can leave our mark on the world for future generations to learn from.

    Answer to the Ptarmigan Chick Question

    I didn’t forget, don’t worry. There are five chicks hidden in plain sight. Let me show you where they are. I have placed blue circles around the adult ptarmigan and the five chicks so you can see where they are. How many did you find?

    The same image of a ptarmigan and its chicks blending into the ground and background of rocks and plants. The adult bird and the five chicks have been highlighted with blue circles.
    Paxson Woelber, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons – Circles added to highlight where the chicks are in the image.

  • Mythology Monday – Selkies

    Mythology Monday – Selkies

    Image is of a harbour seal with dark grey spotted fur, lying on its belly on an ice floe floating on the sea.
    Harbor seal on an ice floe: Public Domain from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

    I’m continuing my coverage of Scottish Mythology with the Selkies. Selkies are shapeshifters, an entire subgroup of mythological creatures that can change form. Often they have a human or human-like form and can change into something else. The change may be voluntary but it may not be, as is sometimes the case with werewolves.

    The name comes from the Scots word for seal. It can be written as ‘silkies,’ ‘sylkies,’ or ‘selchies.’ The Scots language doesn’t have standardised spelling for most words. They are the seal folk and they are associated with the northern isles of Scotland: Shetland and Orkney. They also feature in many Celtic and Norse myths and stories are also told of them in Iceland and Ireland.

    What Are Selkies?

    Selkies are sometimes conflated with the finfolk and merfolk. In the Gaelic languages they are named as mermaids, most of the time.

    Like many mythological creatures, especially in Scotland, they have a duality to their nature. They can be friendly and helpful to humans, but they are also capable of being dangerous or vengeful.

    Selkies live as seals in the sea and shed or remove their skin to become human on land. They are depicted as beautiful and seductive in human form. Many stories involve them having romantic or sexual relationships with humans.

    Many stories involve coercion or trickery, into marrying a human. Usually the human steals and hides their seal skin so they can’t return to the sea. This leaves them trapped in an unhappy marriage, unless they can find their skin and escape. Here’s an example from Orkney.

    Male selkies exist and are handsome and seductive to human women. They tend to look for women who are unhappy with their lives, such as those married to fisherman who are at sea for long periods of time.

    Superstitions About Selkies

    Unsurprisingly, folk stories like this create superstitions. For example, there is a common belief that killing a seal would result in misfortune. This is why people living on the isles would only kill seals during hard times, if they had no other option.

    One tale involves crofters grazing their sheep. It is common on the islands for crofters to have communal grazing for their livestock instead of fenced off fields. One man put seven sheep on the largest holm and killed a seal on his way home.

    That night, all of his sheep disappeared, while the other crofter’s animals were safe and unharmed. It suggests that the selkies took the sheep as revenge.

    Similar stories of seal shapeshifters are found across the world. A similar creature exists in Swedish legend and the Chinook people of North America have a similar tale of a boy who turns into a seal. Iceland also has a lot of selkie-type stories. If the story includes any offspring of a selkie and a human, the child is born with physical characteristics like webbed fingers.

    Origins of Selkie Myths

    The likely origin of these myths came from the early days of settlements when health conditions and congenital abnormalities were blamed on fairies or changelings. Before people had scientific explanations for these things, they would be attributed to deities or the supernatural.

    The tales of seals removing their skins likely originated with early settlers in Scotland encountering Finnish and Sami women who wore sealskin clothing. They removed it and let it dry, when it got waterlogged. There is also lore that suggests selkies are supernaturally formed from the souls of drowned people.

    Selkies have made frequent appearances in films and books. They have seen a resurgence in popularity in the last few years with novels and films featuring them. I love that, as long as the origins of the myths are preserved and respected.

  • Fixing Friday: Draft One Readthrough

    Fixing Friday: Draft One Readthrough

    We all know that the first draft just needs to exist while the second draft is to make it all make sense. That’s what the goal was for this. I have a draft zero for this project where I realised the structure was too much for a single stand-alone book, causing me to rush through to the ending. So I had something to base draft one on, after splitting it up and expanding the story.

    The entire thing grew from a random scene I wrote several years ago when I was struggling with insomnia. Which happens a lot. I found it again a while later and started vaguely writing scenes here and there. When my health got too bad and I had to stop working, it occurred to me that it might be a good outlet.

    Like many authors these days, I spent a lot of time writing fanfic when I was younger. It helped me cope with university, which was intense and stressful. I enjoyed it a lot and I did mess around with some more original stuff back then. I finally decided to try and make a go of it, so I did. And here we are.

    After I finished draft one I took a break from it for a few weeks. I worked on book two and world-building details I knew I was going to need. A lot of experienced authors recommend this and I can see why. When you’ve spent hours and hours working on a draft, it’s all in your mind and that makes it harder to see what isn’t working. Taking a break gives your brain space to return with fresh eyes and see where changes are needed.

    The First Readthrough

    After I came back to it, I spent some time reading through it and making notes. I do my best thinking and planning with a pen and paper as it makes my brain slow down so I can keep up. I picked it apart piece by piece and figured out what needed changed or rearranged.

    I also decided exactly what point in the overall story I wanted to end book one. I did come up with a colour coding system with coloured pens and sticky tabs. That didn’t really help me much so I retired it for the next version.

    I was still shaping the story at this point and getting to know the characters. Most of the major events were pretty much set in stone but I felt the opening chapters were very slow. At this point, I was still learning how to use story structuring methods. I wanted to ensure that the plot followed a good structure that made sense and I decided to use the Three Act structure as it made the most sense.

    New Software

    I discovered a brilliant writing software called LoreForge. (Not sponsored, I just love it) It provides a ton of useful things. It has space for you to put characters, locations, cultures, races/species, discoveries and more. It has guidance and profiles to make sure you cover all the bits you need to cover. It also has a plotting tool where you can choose from several established story structure templates or a custom one.

    You can also put in chapter and scene summaries, bookmark pages to access in a side-bar to see while writing and colour coded sub-plots. You can edit metadata for each chapter and scene with POV, characters included and link to notes. This software is so flexible and it is free for offline use or you can pay for the premium version that gives more customisation and cloud storage so you can work from multiple devices.

    It has been brilliant for helping me put this story together and I will continue to use it. Books can be exported and the default formatting seems to be pretty good. My later edits are done in Word using tracked changes, one feature that LoreForge doesn’t have. But I highly recommend it for authors, especially if you’re writing fantasy/sci-fi and need to corral a lot of world-building details.

    Once I had finished my readthrough and figured out the major changes I needed to make, it was time to plan out the next draft. I’ll get into details on that next week. The thing that helped me the most was taking a break from it. I don’t want to rush and put out an inferior book, especially not with my debut.

  • When Characters Take Control

    When Characters Take Control

    A typewriter is shown with 'Stories matter' typed on it and the text below says 'When characters take control.'

    When Characters Take Control

    What happens when characters take control of your narrative? This is a familiar situation for many writers. It can be frustrating when the characters just walk all over your carefully planned outline. Our plans and early drafts are how we really get to know our characters and that means that things can change during the process. So let’s talk about when characters take over and whether you should let it happen or not.

    Plans Change All The Time

    Not everyone likes to plan their stories out but even ‘pantsers’ have some idea of what’s going on and where the plot will go. For others, having a detailed outline is essential for structuring and writing the narrative. I personally work with a combination of both but I spend a lot of time getting to know my characters, both through detailed backgrounds and profiles and through writing them.

    However, sometimes people get stuck on their outline because they get through two thirds of the story and realise the next plot point makes no sense. Or the character has changed and their next move is now out of character for them, which can be jarring for the reader. Trying to force them to get back on track with the plan makes the writing feel forced, which can contribute to writer’s block.

    It’s okay for things to change as you write. It’s pretty normal, actually. Your plan is simply a guideline for the original idea and if a new idea or direction feels better then you can absolutely follow the new path. I wouldn’t throw out the original plan and any scenes or chapters you decide to remove, though. Keep them in a separate file, just in case you want to refer back to them or use them somewhere else.

    What if the Characters Take Over?

    As you write, you get to know your characters better. No matter how detailed their profile and background might be, you’ll still find yourself learning things about them. As you understand them better, you know how they’re going to respond to events. You know what kind of decisions they will make.

    This means that the characters ultimately take control of the narrative and can push it in unexpected ways, even for the writer. If that’s what is happening, I think it’s okay to let it happen if that makes more sense to you. Being too rigid about your outline can stifle the flow of your writing and block your creativity. So if it feels right, let it happen.

    My Example

    In my current work-in-progress, one of the secondary protagonists has been upgraded to a primary protagonist. Aidan Kynaston joins the other two main characters on their journey. However I felt he was introduced quite late in the story. He also has an important plot point later on, so I realised he needed to play a bigger role in the story.

    The other reason was that the first half of the book focused exclusively on the other two main characters. So introducing a few chapters focused on Aidan before he meets up with the other two made sense. Including his point of view also facilitated adding more world-building and details about the stakes.

    Aidan also decided to tell me an important dark secret which I could then show to the reader to add more of his internal conflict. It makes him a lot more interesting, especially in his interactions with my morally grey assassin Alonso. They’re getting to know each other and I think it’s going to be very interesting going forward.

    So really, I had no choice but to upgrade him to a full main character with his own chapters and tell more of his story. I’m excited to see where this ends up taking him, alongside my other characters. I am having a lot of fun putting it together. I’m hoping to have it ready for beta readers very soon.

    My Advice to Other Writers

    If your characters are taking control of your story and the original plan no longer feels right, I would let it happen. Your best work will come by letting the story tell itself so forcing yourself to stick to the original outline can weaken your story.

    I think planning can be a helpful tool to structure your writing and keep your story on track. But it doesn’t have to be rigid and set in stone. Characters can take on a mind of their own, but do you know what that means? That means they’re well developed and becoming who they are supposed to be. So if your characters take control, you might be surprised how much better your story is if you let them.

    Have your characters taken control? Let me know your thoughts, and subscribe below if you want to see more. Every week I’ll be sharing some insights into my writing process or talking about a related subject.

  • Blood Sugar Regulation Hormones

    Blood Sugar Regulation Hormones

    Image titled blood sugar regulation. Contains image of chemical formula of glucose, an insulin vial, a bag of sugar and a pair of hands using a glucometer.

    The body needs energy to function. This energy must be obtained from food, processed and metabolised so it is ready for the cells to use. Glucose, a sugar molecule, makes up the most important energy source. The brain alone uses 20% of the glucose produced by the body.

    Like many other factors, blood glucose must be maintained at the correct levels for everything to function as it should. Blood glucose and blood sugar are the same thing, so we’ll use ‘glucose’ going forward. The two main hormones oppose each other to maintain the balance of blood glucose.

    Important Definitions

    Glucose: a small sugar molecule the body uses for energy to function.

    Glycogen: a long branched molecule, made up of glucose molecules. It acts as storage of energy for later use, mainly in the liver and skeletal muscles.

    Glycogenolysis: the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

    Glycogenesis: the creation of glycogen from glucose. Don’t mix these two up!

    Gluconeogenesis: the process of making glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as fats and proteins.

    Hypoglycaemia: low blood glucose.

    Hyperglycaemia: high blood glucose. Don’t mix these two up, check your prefixes!

    Insulin: The Anabolic Hormone

    The hormone insulin controls anabolism: the storage and utilisation of energy. Insulin secretion takes place in the beta-cells of the islets of Langerhands, within the pancreas. It promotes glucose uptake from the blood into the body cells. It also promotes glycogenesis and fat generation, in other words, the storage of energy.

    High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin secretion by the pancreas, with the aim of reducing blood glucose to normal again. For this reason, insulin follows a cycle where it is released shortly after a meal to store away the energy from food.

    Most people have heard of diabetes mellitus, an endocrine disease involving insulin function. There are two main types of diabetes mellitus, which I am specifying because there is another kind of diabetes that is less well known, diabetes insipidus. So, let’s look at the details of diabetes mellitus.

    Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

    An autoimmune condition, the immune system attacks the beta-cells in the pancreatic islets. Insulin production is halted or massively reduced, which is why T1 diabetics need to inject insulin regularly to manage their blood glucose. The result is excessively high blood glucose.

    Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

    This form is much more complex and still not completely understood. Various risk factors contribute to reduction of beta-cells and insulin resistance. The cells don’t respond to insulin like they should and take up glucose from the blood. Increased glucagon secretion, unresponsive to blood glucose, could also be a factor.

    The end result is a persistent hyperglycaemia which results in the symptoms of diabetes. We’ll cover the details of this later.

    Glucagon: The Catabolic Hormone

    Glucagon opposes insulin, counteracting all of its effects. The alpha-cells of the pancreatic islets produce glucagon in response to low blood glucose. Glucagon raises blood glucose and fatty acids, stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. In other words, taking glucose out of storage and making more of it.

    Excessive glucagon levels contributes a lot to the development of hyperglycaemic ketoacidosis in undiagnosed or poorly managed type 1 diabetics. Ketoacidosis (DKA) becomes a diabetic coma if untreated and is life-threatening.

    The Effects of Hyperglycaemia

    An excessively high blood glucose impacts almost all of the body in some way. The main symptoms of diabetes mellitus include the triad of polyphagia, polydipsia and polyuria. Polyphagia means increased appetite or eating more than normal. Polydipsia means increased thirst or drinking more than normal. Polyuria means producing more urine than normal, referring to volume rather than frequency. That said, a higher volume of urine will typically increase the frequency of urination.

    Other symptoms include vision changes, fatigue, weight changes, poor wound healing, neuropathy (tingling in legs and feet), recurrent infections, coma and seizures.

    As mentioned before, ketoacidosis is a life-threatening complication of persistently high blood glucose levels. When the cells can’t use glucose, they produce ketone bodies to make energy from instead. These ketones make the blood more acidic and cause damage. Some people can smell the ketones, usually described as a ‘fruity’ smell or like nail polish. I personally can’t smell ketones very well.

    Other diseases cause hyperglycaemia including other endocrine disorders, sepsis and brain pathology. Certain medications also affect blood glucose, particularly certain steroids, beta-blockers, statins and antipsychotics.

    Stress impacts blood glucose, as the physiology of stress prepares the body for fight or flight, including making energy available. Stress induced hyperglycaemia matters a lot in cats, because they show extreme changes in blood glucose when stressed. For this reason, diagnosing diabetes mellitus in cats is not straightforward.

    Most cats are stressed simply visiting the vet, especially if a blood sample is taken, so one high glucose result in a cat means nothing. Further testing needs to be done to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes.

    The Effects of Hypoglycaemia

    Hypoglycaemia is more immediately life-threatening than hyperglycaemia. Symptoms of low blood sugar include headaches, confusion, light-headedness, heart palpitations, anxiety, nausea and tremors. Severely low blood sugar causes seizures, loss of consciousness and even death.

    The brain relies on glucose for energy, with no other option available to the cells. Hence the neurological symptoms and risk of seizures and brain damage.

    Excessive insulin causes hypoglycaemia, whether it is an accidental overdose, not eating after taking insulin, being injected with insulin when not diabetic or an insulinoma. Insulinomas are tumours of the pancreatic islet cells and while benign, they produce insulin in an uncontrolled way.

    Adrenal disease like Addison’s disease (hypoadrenocorticism), sepsis (glucose stores are used up) and other serious illnesses can cause low blood sugar too. Alcohol consumption, fasting and intense exercise, especially if diabetic will risk hypoglycaemia. Starvation, including eating disorders and neglect as well.

    Xylitol, the artificial sweetener, causes a rapid release of insulin in dogs. This results in hypoglycaemia and liver damage. Xylitol only affects dogs in this manner, but it is a common ingredient in gum, mints, peanut butter, medications, supplements, sunscreen, toiletries and cosmetics. Dog owners, beware because xylitol toxicity is an emergency and needs rapid treatment.

    Thanks for reading! April’s themes will be the physical impact of mental health problems on Mondays, and cats on Fridays for our Creature Features! Subscribe for updates when new posts are live. See you soon!

    Emma Stewart Writes

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  • Rodents for Writers: Squirrels

    Rodents for Writers: Squirrels

    Rodents for writers: squirrels. The final part of the series on common rodents, to help writers better understand them. This time we’re covering the other major class of rodents, the squirrel family of rodents.

    This family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (chipmunks and prairie dogs) and flying squirrels. The focus of this article is the most common tree squirrels. The eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris).

    Biology

    Squirrels eat tree bark, buds, flowers, berries, seeds, acorns, nuts, fungi and truffles as the main part of their diet. They will forage from garden crops like wheat, tomatoes, corn and strawberries and eat insects, frogs, small rodents, small birds and eggs, making them omnivores.

    In urban areas they will raid bins and trash cans and steal food from bird feeders in people’s gardens. They stash excess food away in the ground or inside trees for later. These stashes are known as ‘middens’, although they sometimes lose track of them.

    Since they are rodents, their incisors are open-rooted and grow continuously, while their molars do not. Squirrels have sharp claws to grip tree bark and climb, gray squirrels can even turn their hind feet in order to climb down a tree head first. Unlike most other climbing animals, who are incapable of doing this.

    Their long fluffy tails help them with balance and steering when climbing and running, as well as being adorable. Squirrels build nests in trees or take over abandoned bird nests, which they then line with moss, dry grass and feathers for warmth.

    Interestingly, in warm weather, squirrels exhibit a behaviour, they ‘sploot’ or lie flat on the ground with their limbs spread out. Apparently, this helps them lose heat.

    a grey squirrel splooting on a path, lying face down to keep itself cool
    FASTILY, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    Invasive Species and Conservation

    Gray squirrels were introduced to the UK in the 1870s from North America. They quickly established themselves across England, Wales and southern Scotland. Unfortunately, they displaced the native red squirrels by taking over habitats, competing for food sources and transmitting squirrel pox. The squirrel pox virus is often fatal to the red squirrels, however, it doesn’t harm the gray squirrels.

    A red squirrel crouching at the base of a tree.
    hedera.baltica from Wrocław, Poland, CC BY-SA 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    Because of this, conservation programs were implemented to protect the native red squirrels and the population has stabilised in Scotland and on the Isle of Wight.

    Culture, Mythology and Folklore

    In Norse mythology, a red squirrel plays an important role. Ratatoskr runs up and down the world-tree Yggdrasil, bringing messages between the hawk at the top of the tree and the dragon at the roots.

    Beatrix Potter’s children’s literature features many UK native wildlife species. Squirrel Nutkin the red squirrel features in her works. Denmark’s national mammal is the red squirrel.

    Thank you for reading, I hope you enjoyed this series. Stay tuned for next months themes, I’m excited to bring you more useful content in April. I’m also participating in a new writing challenge, ZAPWHAMPOW. For updates, follow my socials.

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  • RAAS and Thyroid Hormones

    RAAS and Thyroid Hormones

    The RAAS system and thyroid hormones play an essential role in managing metabolism, blood pressure and fluid balance. These hormones regulate electrolytes, water retention and metabolic rate.

    RAAS

    The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system involves several organs and plays an essential role in maintaining blood pressure. A drop in blood flow to the kidneys activates the RAAS to increase blood pressure and maintain filtration in the kidneys.

    Soupvector, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    The kidneys convert circulating prorenin into renin in response to reduced renal blood flow. Renin converts angiotensinogen, produced in the liver, into angiotensin I. The lungs contain ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) which converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II.

    Angiotensin II degrades into angiotensin III which stimulates aldosterone secretion from the adrenal cortex. Angiotensin III increases the blood pressure while angiotensin II narrows the blood vessels (vasoconstriction.)

    Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone increases sodium and water retention, as well as potassium excretion. This keeps the electrolytes (salts) in balance and keeps water in the circulation to increase blood pressure.

    This system has several potential drug targets for treating hypertension (high blood pressure), heart disease, kidney failure and diabetes. Examples include ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers and renin inhibitors.

    Activation of RAAS

    Any loss in blood volume or drop in blood pressure triggers the RAAS, such as dehydration or significant haemorrhage. The system raises blood pressure and improves blood flow in the kidney’s glomeruli.

    It also triggers the release of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin which controls water reabsorption and retention in the kidneys. ADH also acts on the brain to increase appetite for salt and thirst for water.

    Thyroid Hormones

    The thyroid gland is located in the neck, just below the larynx. It typically has two lobes, one on each side, with a pair of parathyroid glands on each side as well. The term ‘goitre’ means an enlargement of the thyroid gland which you can feel, or even see if it is large enough. A goitre does not always mean a tumour or cancer.

    The two main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). They are created from tyrosine and iodine, the only function iodine has in the body. The thyroid hormones increase basal metabolic rate, absorption rate in the gut and fat breakdown. They also increase heart rate, oxygen consumption and play a role in growth and brain development.

    Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Release

    Like others we’ve discussed, the hypothalamus controls release of thyroid hormones. It secretes thryotropin releasing hormone (TRH) which stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH then acts on the thyroid gland to produce T3 and T4. The thyroid hormones have a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to stop further hormone release.

    Thyroid Disorders

    Thyroid disorders are fairly common in humans. Hyperthyroidism (excess thyroid hormones) is extremely common in elderly cats. Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) is common in dogs.

    Hyperthyroidism means excess production of T3 and T4. Grave’s disease and thyroid adenoma are common causes. In cats, a benign thyroid adenoma produces excess thyroid hormones, ignoring the normal regulatory system the body has.

    Symptoms of hyperthyroidism include unexplained weight loss, hair loss, an increased appetite, fast heart rate and stress or restlessness. It can be treated with drugs that suppress thyroid function, radioactive iodine (I-131) therapy or surgery to remove part/all of the thyroid (partial or total thyroidectomy.)

    Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid. Remember the terminology series: hyper- means too high, hypo- means too low. An underactive thyroid is common in dogs and in humans. Iodine deficiency is a common cause, as is an autoimmune disease such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis.

    Symptoms of hypothyroidism include weight gain that is difficult to lose, fatigue, constipation, hair loss, a slow heart rate and myxoedema. Myxoedema is abnormal swelling in limbs or the face, and is a type of non-pitting oedema. Pitting oedema means if you press it with a finger, the dent remains. Non-pitting oedema obviously means it doesn’t.

    Treatment for hypothyroid conditions includes immune modulating treatments, iodine supplements and replacement thyroid hormone like levothyroxine.

    Axolotls

    Axolotls are odd little creatures. They exist in a state of arrested development, never moving beyond the juvenile phase of the life cycle. This happens because they lack iodine and cannot produce thyroxine. They can reproduce but they retain their gills and remain fully aquatic.

    They are also capable of regenerating lost limbs. If they are treated with thyroid hormone or exposed to idone, they metamorphose into salamanders. However, they don’t survive well if this happens.

    Conclusion

    These complex systems are often misunderstood but they are important to maintain the body’s physiology as it should be. Next week we’ll cover the remaining systems, insulin and parathyroid hormones.

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  • Rodents for Writers: Guinea Pigs

    Rodents for Writers: Guinea Pigs

    Rodents for writers: guinea pigs. Today we’re going to be discussing my favourite rodent species, guinea pigs. Cavia porcellus – the domestic guinea pig, sometimes known as ‘cavy’ as well. The name is misleading, they don’t come from Guinea and are not related to pigs.

    Guinea pigs originate from the Andes region of South America. European traders brought them to North America and Europe in the 16th century. They quickly became popular pets, even Queen Elizabeth I kept them!

    Biology

    Guinea pigs are relatively large rodents in the hystricomorph group of rodents. This group includes capybaras, chinchillas and degus. Guinea pig keepers developed many different breeds such as the long haired Peruvian and the hairless ‘skinny pig’.

    Guinea pigs live in herds, with a boar, several sows and their pups. They are herbivores and graze on grasses and vegetation. The digestive system is similar to rabbits and horses, with a well developed caecum full of microbes that break down the fibre of their diet. Guinea pigs practice caecotrophy, where they pass caecal contents and eat them again to get nutrients produced by their gut microbiome.

    Unlike rats and mice, all of the teeth are open rooted and growing constantly, requiring constant use on tough fibre to keep them from overgrowing. Like humans, and unlike most mammals, guinea pigs cannot produce their own vitamin C and need a dietary source of it to avoid scurvy.

    They don’t have good eyesight but there is a wide angle of vision and partial colour vision. Their hearing and sense of smell are well developed though. Sensitive whiskers help them navigate when vision is poor.

    Behaviour

    Guinea pigs learn and remember complex paths and can be trained and tamed easily. However, they lack good climbing skills and jumping skills. They can swim but dislike being wet.

    As prey animals, they are easily startled and may freeze or run for cover if they sense a threat. On the other hand, if they are excited in a good way, they do little hops known as ‘popcorning’.

    Guinea pigs use a vast array of vocalisations and sounds to express themselves, including wheeks, purrs and shrieks. They are very vocal animals and almost always have something to say!

    Reproduction

    Unlike most rodents whose newborns are helpless, guinea pig pups are precocious and well developed when born. They can walk, see and even eat solid food on day one of life. They do still suckle for a few weeks though. I always joked it was because they are cooked for longer! The gestation period lasts about nine weeks, similar to dogs.

    Domestication and Husbandry

    Guinea pigs should be kept in groups, at least two if not more. Neutering the males helps reduce fighting and prevent pregnancy. In fact, Switzerland made it illegal to keep a single guinea pig alone. They even have a service where you can rent a guinea pig as a temporary companion to replace a dead cage mate. How cute is that?

    Guinea pigs should not be housed with other rodents. People keep them with rabbits but this is not recommended. Rabbits carry two bacteria: Bordetella bronchiseptica and Pasteurella multocida. These bacteria cause severe respiratory disease and guinea pigs are especially susceptible.

    Guinea Pigs In Society

    Pets

    Guinea pigs make great pets because they are docile, calm and rarely bite. They are easy to tame and enjoy human companionship. In my opinion, compared to rabbits they are far better suited as pets for younger children. The long haired varieties need regular grooming though.

    Science

    The phrase ‘be a guinea pig’ refers to being a subject of experimentation or trial. Scientific research used guinea pigs for a long time, since the 17th century. They are ideal models for a number of health conditions. That’s why the phrase is used in this fashion.

    Andean Folklore and Traditions

    Guinea pigs play a huge role in Andean traditions, including traditional healing rituals, ceremonies, spoken metaphors and even as gifts.

    In Peru, guinea pigs play a role in religious events and the culture. They celebrate National Guinea Pig Day on the second Friday of October every year. South Americans rear guinea pigs for their meat and commonly eat them too.

    Pop Culture and the Media

    Literature

    Guinea pigs feature in literature a lot, especially children’s literature like the works of Beatrix Potter and C S Lewis. The short story ‘Pigs is Pigs’, written by Ellis Parker Butler, is about two guinea pigs reproducing while humans argue about what they are for freight charges. This story inspired the well-known Star Trek episode ‘The Trouble With Tribbles’.

    Film and TV

    Eddie Murphy starred in Dr Dolittle movies where a pet guinea pig by the name of Rodney played a big role. Rodney, voiced by Chris Rock, provided a lot of comic relief in those movies.

    One of my personal favourites, South Park season 12 featured two episodes about Peru. Pandemic (episode 10) and Pandemic 2: The Startling (episode 11) included giant guinea pigs dressed in costumes rampaging through South Park.

    Conclusion

    Guinea pigs make great pets because they are intelligent, sociable and expressive. I adore guinea pigs, I had them growing up and one of my favourite patients was a guinea pig. He used to leap into my arms from the table when he came to see me.

    It’s obvious why they are so popular. Their cute little faces, their vocalisations and their antics. They hold importance to the cultures of many people in the Andes region of South America. Guinea pigs should feature more in media, in my opinion.

    Thank you for reading rodents for writers, guinea pigs and I hope it helped. I know a lot about guinea pigs and I’m always happy to answer any questions about them, or any animal. Don’t forget to subscribe for updates when a new post goes live. For more rodents, see my posts on rats and mice. See you soon!

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  • Gonads And Sex Hormones

    Gonads And Sex Hormones

    This endocrine system involves the gonads and sex hormones, known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis or HPG axis. The HPG axis holds high importance for the survival of the species, without it extinction would be inevitable.

    The HPG axis controls development, the reproduction system and aging in animals. It also regulates the immune system and has roles in metabolism, mood regulation and behaviours.

    So as you can see, this axis involves the hypothalamus signalling the pituitary which then signals the gonads: the ovaries or testes depending on sex. Bear in mind that the hormone cycle varies significantly depending on species, sex and natural variations between individuals.

    Some Notes on Sex, Hormones and Gender

    The biological processes described here are the typical and most commonly seen. It does not account for variations of intersex people. Nor how the system works if altered by external factors like hormone replacement therapy, misuse of anabolic steroids (never a good idea) and other medical interventions.

    This does of course include transgender people who may be medically transitioning so their body aligns with their gender. A brief reminder that I do not tolerate transphobia on my platforms. Gender and biological sex are not the same thing. Biology always has exceptions to the ‘standard’ and that is why I never use the term ‘normal.’ Interestingly, Harley Quinn from Suicide Squad puts it well: “Normal is a setting on the drier.”

    A final note for my international readers: I use British English spelling and that includes certain hormones we are discussing today. I will include the American English spelling in [square brackets] to prevent confusion.

    Sex Hormones

    Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

    Starting at the top, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) starts the process. The hypothalamus secrets GnRH which travels down to the anterior pituitary to stimulate it to produce the gonadotropin hormones. The clue’s in the name! The sex hormones provide a negative feedback look to inhibit GnRH secretion.

    Lutenising Hormone (LH)

    The anterior pituitary releases lutenising hormone (LH) in response to GnRH. LH is a gonadotropin, which means it stimulates the gonads: the ovaries and the testes. LH and FSH work synergistically. In males LH stimulates the Leydig cells, part of the testes, to produce testosterone.

    In females an acute surge of LH triggers ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum. Corpus luteum translates from Latin as the ‘yellow body’ and is what is left of the follicle once ovulation has occurred. The egg then travels into the Fallopian tube.

    Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

    Unsurprisingly, follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates the ovarian follicles. Sometimes it’s better to use a name that is clear and self-explanatory, you know? FSH regulates grown, puberty and the reproductive processes.

    In both sexes, FSH stimulates maturation of the primordial germ cells. The germ cells go on to become the ‘gametes’ i.e. ova (eggs) and sperm. In females it stimulates growth of the follicle around the egg and development in preparation for ovulation.

    In males, FSH induces the Sertoli cells within the testes, to produce androgen-binding proteins. These proteins concentrate testosterone within the testes for spermatogenesis, sperm production.

    Oestrogens (Estrogens)

    Several oestrogens are produced but oestradiol (estradiol or E2) is the preominant one during the reproductive years. One of the sex hormones, oestradiol plays numerous roles in the body.

    Oestrogens regulate metabolism and fat distribution in the body. It also increases bone formation, and this is why post-menopausal AFAB people are at a higher risk of osteoporosis. Oestrogens also mediate the formation of secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development.

    Oestrogen prepares the reproductive tract for sex and implantation of a fertilised egg. It also triggers the LH surge which then triggers ovulation. In other animals, sexual receptivity during oestrus (estrus/heat) requires oestrogen. It may also play a role in mental health, especially around menstruation and pregnancy. For example, post-partum depression often improves once oestrogen levels stabilise again.

    Progestagens

    Progesterone is the most important of these sex hormones and has many functions. Progesterone maintains the uterus and placenta during pregnancy. The corpus luteum produces progesterone after ovulation, until the placenta can take over.

    In humans, if no pregnancy occurs, progesterone levels drop which causes menstruation. In other animals, different processes occur. Progesterone levels are linked to breast cancer in humans.

    In dogs it is well documented as well, because of the way the reproductive cycle works in female dogs. Dogs have a long luteal phase with high progesterone levels for the same length of time regardless of whether they are pregnant.

    This is why no blood test can diagnose pregnancy in dogs and why they are so prone to phantom pregnancies as well. In un-spayed female dogs, 50-70% of all tumours are mammary tumours. Early spaying reduces the risk but advice on how early to spay is varied and should account for breed, size and potential risks of spaying too early. Discuss the matter with your vet.

    Testosterone

    Testosterone is an androgen sex hormone. It manages the development of male reproductive tissues, sexondary sexual characteristics of males and many other functions. It is important for muscle and bone mass, metabolism and behaviour.

    While in the uterus at 4-6 weeks gestation, testosterone begins the differentiation of tissues into male parts instead of female. The SRY gene, on the Y chromosome, is necessary for this. Later in pregnancy, testosterone works with anti-Müllerian hormone to further develop male features.

    Of course, testosterone manages male puberty and the development of secondary sexual characteristics. It regulates and promotes sperm production. Sufferers of PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome) produce excess testosterone, which causes many of the symptoms of the disorder.

    Conclusion

    This is a brief rundown of the main sex hormones and their effect on the gonads. The reproductive system varies massively between species and humans are very different from other mammals. Remember that all bodies will produce some level of all of these hormones and that hormones are not the whole story.

    Many disorders around these hormones exist, which explains the reason for intersex people and people whose chromosomes and hormones don’t line up with their gender presentation. Biology loves variety and there are always exceptions to the rules.

    Thanks for reading! Feel free to ask any questions in the comments. See you next time!

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  • Rodents for Writers: Mice

    Rodents for Writers: Mice

    Biology of Mice

    Welcome to Rodents for Writers: Mice. The next part of my creature features series focusing on rodents for March.

    Mice, like rats, are in the order Rodentia and the family Muridae. Lots of different species exist in the world but the most relevant to us is the house mouse Mus musculus. They live in the wild but find it beneficial to live around human society.

    People keep mice as pets, domesticated and bred to have a myriad of coat colours. Laboratories use domestic mice as model organisms for biology and medical research.

    A small species with a body length of 7.5 – 10cm and a tail length of 5 – 10cm, short single coats and very little hair on the ears and tail. Mice have good skills including jumping, climbing and swimming.

    Mice adapt to and live in all kinds of conditions, inside buildings, open fields and woodlands. They get into houses very easily and seek the warmth during the autumn and winter months. Mice are crepuscular, more active at night than during the day. They avoid bright light.

    Mice eat plant material but they are omnivores and will eat other things including meat. They exhibit coprophagia, eating their own faeces, in order to get nutrients that are produced by their gut microbiome. Of course, mice are a common prey species for cats, dogs, birds of prey, snakes and other carnivores.

    Their social structure depends on the availability of food and shelter. Groups of females exhibit co-operative parenting, sharing responsibility for all the offspring. Males are territorial and aggressive to competitors.

    Senses

    Mice have vision similar to rats, they are dichromats, only having two kinds of cone colour receptors. Humans have three. They do have ultraviolet sensitive cones, allowing them to see UV light. Scientists genetically engineered mice to have the third type of cone to see a wider range of colours.

    Pheromones form an essential part of communication for mice, so they have a strong sense of smell. The vomeronasal organ (Jacobson’s organ) plays a big role in this, its function is to detect pheromones and communicate with the brain.

    The vibrissae (whiskers) allow mice to sense surfaces and air movements, even in poor lighting. The whiskers connect directly to nerves and are extremely sensitive.

    Lifespan

    Wild mice live less than a year on average due to predation and exposure to harsh environments. Domesticated mice average two to three years. The record for longest life of a domestic mouse is just a few days shy of five years. In my experience, mice average two years of life when well cared for.

    History of Mice and Humans

    Mice have lived around humans for a long time, invading food stores and homes. Cats domestication is in part because of the presence of mice in our homes and businesses. Explorers and colonisers spread mice across the world on their ships.

    Mice as Pets

    The earliest recorded mention of mice as pets comes from Erya, the oldest Chinese dictionary from 1100 B.C. In the modern world, mice breeders have created many ‘fancy’ mice with different colouration and a docile temperament.

    Mice are also bred as food for carnivorous pets like snakes and birds of prey. Just to note that feeding live rodents is illegal in the UK. This is for the welfare of both the rodents and the predator animals. Mice can injure snakes if they are not eaten immediately.

    Pests and Pestilence

    One of the most common household and commercial pests, mice take advantage of food being left out and the warmth of our homes. They get in through tiny spaces and nest in dark places.

    Mice contaminate food, spread parasites like fleas and can transmit infectious diseases like leptospirosis. Rats are more important for disease transmission but mice still pose a risk. Mice are an invasive species in many places including New Zealand.

    Laboratory Mice

    Scientists use mice more commonly than any other mammal in laboratories. This is because mice are so similar to humans. The ‘transgenic mice’ are genetically modified in order to study specific pathology or for drug development. They form an essential part of oncology, the study of cancers. So it has nothing to do with transgender people. Not every word with ‘trans-‘ in it is related to being transgender.

    Culture

    Mice feature in children’s stories and visual media a lot. They are definitely treated better than rats are, as well. The most famous example is of course the mascot of the Walt Disney Company: Mickey Mouse.

    Beatrix Potter wrote several stories featuring mice. Other examples include Basil the Great Mouse Detective, Stuart Little and Jerry from Tom and Jerry. In Roald Dahl’s The Witches, a child is turned into a mouse. I bet you can think of many more examples.

    Thanks for reading this edition of rodents for writers: mice. I hope you enjoyed it. Let me know what you think, feel free to get in touch with any questions.

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