Emma Stewart Writes

Blog

  • The Reality of Living With Depression

    The Reality of Living With Depression

    What Is Depression?

    Studies show that one in five people will experience depression at some point in their life. So what is the reality of living with depression? It’s not just about feeling ‘sad’ or ‘down’ – everyone gets that at some point. Depression is a lot deeper and more insidious. It disrupts your every day life and you can’t just ‘snap out of it.’ This is your trigger warning, this article will discuss suicide and suicidal ideation. Please take care of your mental health if this topic will be too much for you.

    People living with depression will experience a lot of symptoms and difficulties. They lose interest in things they used to enjoy, have changes in weight, difficulties with sleeping, a lack of energy (fatigue) and negative self beliefs and self talk. I am not a mental health professional, I am a person with experience of living with depression. I cannot diagnose or treat and would recommend seeking professional advice.

    Serotonin

    I discussed the neurotransmitters in a previous post. Serotonin is the one most people focus on when we are talking about depression. Low serotonin is common in depression but is more likely to be a symptom than the cause. That said, serotonin is still the basis of pharmaceutical treatment of depression, for example SSRIs, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors. A licensed medical professional can advise on appropriate options for treatment.

    Distorted Thinking In Depression

    One of the hallmarks of depression is distorted thinking. Thoughts and emotions that occur that continue the cycle of negativity and the feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness that depression brings. Things like making predictions about the future that are extremely negative. Assuming what other people think of you, and assuming the worst. Telling yourself that everyone hates you, they find you annoying and they only tolerate you because they have to.

    Catastrophising means treating everything that happens as a huge deal, even minor things that go wrong feel like the end of the world. Blaming yourself for everything that goes wrong and obsessing about what you should have done. Even when it isn’t your fault.

    Ignoring the positives and assuming everything will go wrong. Depressed people will often ignore, or not even notice, when something good happens. They only focus on the negative things. They will often self-label as worthless, a failure, useless, all kinds of things that indicate poor self-worth and self-esteem.

    Please understand that none of these things are true and experiencing depression is not your fault, it’s not because you are weak. It is your brain lying to you, in a way. It’s not easy to live with but you can find help and support.

    The Reality of Living With Depression

    People with depression tend to self-isolate and spend excessive time alone. They avoid social engagements and will often make plans then ‘flake out’ at the last minute. They then feel guilty for letting people down and spend their time thinking the worst of themselves.

    Sleep disturbances are common in depression. Either insomnia develops where the person can’t sleep or can’t stay asleep. This makes it harder to break the negative thought cycles as well as worsening fatigue. Other people will sleep too much, spending excessive amounts of time in bed, perhaps even having an inability to get themselves out of bed.

    Appetite can be affected too, either not eating enough or seeking comfort by excessive eating. This can lead to weight loss or gain, which can factor in to more of the negative thought cycles. Emotional dysregulation is very common. Either they are emotionally detached and numb, or experience negative emotions in a very pronounced way. Not just sadness, some people will experience irritability or anger that may seem irrational.

    People will lose interest in things like their hobbies and interests, work and social life. Poor libido is common too. They will stop doing things they enjoy. They will also stop taking care of themselves and their home including hygiene, cleaning the home, making food and that kind of thing. I’ve experienced this and at my worst last year I was showering twice a week and did not care for myself properly.

    People with depression also don’t believe they are worthy of love, care, friendship, respect or consideration from others. They may reject support and avoid reaching out because they believe they are a burden and don’t want to drag other people down with them.

    Living with depression is hard, you are constantly battling your own mind. A lot of people will start self-medicating with substances like alcohol and illegal drugs. This could also be a factor in self-harm behaviours. It’s a coping mechanism, but not a healthy one and long term it will make the situation worse.

    Suicidal Ideation

    This is the most difficult part of depression, both to experience and to talk about. Depression can lead to thoughts of death, self-harm and suicidal ideation. This stems from the belief that the person is worthless, a burden to their friends and family and a belief that everyone around them will be better off without them.

    They may think about ending their life, imagining how to do it and thinking of plans. They may begin making preparations like giving away possessions and that kind of thing. These thoughts are dark and distressing but with depression it can feel like there’s no other way out of the situation.

    If someone admits to feeling this way, please take them seriously and do not judge them. It’s hard to hear when someone you care about wants to end their life, but it is very important that you do not make it about you. Do not call them selfish or tell them how much it will hurt you or other people. They already feel guilty enough, adding more guilt to that will NOT help the situation. Do not dismiss them as dramatic or stupid. If they are in immediate danger, don’t leave them alone and seek professional help for them.

    I think this point bears repeating. Don’t tell a person who has trusted you enough to admit to these feelings, that they will hurt you by taking their own life. No matter how upsetting it is for you to hear, it is also very difficult for them and if you focus on your own feelings instead, you’re manipulating them into feeling guilty about it. Unintentionally, perhaps, but it does not help the person.

    Beware if someone who has depression suddenly seems happy and content. This might not be a sign of them feeling better, it could be that they have made the decision to end their life and they feel good because they know the end is in sight and it is a relief. Especially if they start giving possessions away. Reach out and make sure they know you care.

    How To Help Someone Living With Depression

    There are a lot of things you can do to help someone you know that is living with depression. A lot of it comes down to simply being there for them, show up and support them. Listen to them and don’t dismiss their feelings. Try to avoid offering solutions unless they ask, don’t tell them they’re wrong or that they need to ‘snap out of it.’ Encourage them to seek professional support, help them do this if you can. Remind them that you care and they deserve to be cared about. Gentle encouragement with self-care like nutrition and exercise.

    How To Help Yourself

    Remember that it is not ‘all in your head’, you have an illness, a real illness and it is not your fault. You did nothing to deserve this, you are not lazy and you are not weak. Reach out for help, there are people who want to help you, I promise. Seeing your doctor is an important step to get the help you need.

    Medication can help and it is worth considering, your doctor can help you decide what to try. Talking therapies, counselling and CBT are all options that can help as well. If one thing doesn’t work, that’s okay, you can try something else. Different treatments work better for different people.

    Try not to isolate yourself, you have people around you that care and want to help you. It’s hard to admit when you need help, I know that. But those of us with mental health issues are good at masking, so people might not know what’s going on. It’s okay to not be okay, but it’s okay to put yourself first as well.

    If you need help, Mind has a list of useful contacts. They are there to help. You can find the list here. For those outside the UK, you can easily find helplines via Google that cover where you live. You deserve hope, you deserve help and things can get better. It’s hard to see when you’re in the dark place, but I promise there’s space for you and you are worth helping.

  • When Characters Take Control

    When Characters Take Control

    A typewriter is shown with 'Stories matter' typed on it and the text below says 'When characters take control.'

    When Characters Take Control

    What happens when characters take control of your narrative? This is a familiar situation for many writers. It can be frustrating when the characters just walk all over your carefully planned outline. Our plans and early drafts are how we really get to know our characters and that means that things can change during the process. So let’s talk about when characters take over and whether you should let it happen or not.

    Plans Change All The Time

    Not everyone likes to plan their stories out but even ‘pantsers’ have some idea of what’s going on and where the plot will go. For others, having a detailed outline is essential for structuring and writing the narrative. I personally work with a combination of both but I spend a lot of time getting to know my characters, both through detailed backgrounds and profiles and through writing them.

    However, sometimes people get stuck on their outline because they get through two thirds of the story and realise the next plot point makes no sense. Or the character has changed and their next move is now out of character for them, which can be jarring for the reader. Trying to force them to get back on track with the plan makes the writing feel forced, which can contribute to writer’s block.

    It’s okay for things to change as you write. It’s pretty normal, actually. Your plan is simply a guideline for the original idea and if a new idea or direction feels better then you can absolutely follow the new path. I wouldn’t throw out the original plan and any scenes or chapters you decide to remove, though. Keep them in a separate file, just in case you want to refer back to them or use them somewhere else.

    What if the Characters Take Over?

    As you write, you get to know your characters better. No matter how detailed their profile and background might be, you’ll still find yourself learning things about them. As you understand them better, you know how they’re going to respond to events. You know what kind of decisions they will make.

    This means that the characters ultimately take control of the narrative and can push it in unexpected ways, even for the writer. If that’s what is happening, I think it’s okay to let it happen if that makes more sense to you. Being too rigid about your outline can stifle the flow of your writing and block your creativity. So if it feels right, let it happen.

    My Example

    In my current work-in-progress, one of the secondary protagonists has been upgraded to a primary protagonist. Aidan Kynaston joins the other two main characters on their journey. However I felt he was introduced quite late in the story. He also has an important plot point later on, so I realised he needed to play a bigger role in the story.

    The other reason was that the first half of the book focused exclusively on the other two main characters. So introducing a few chapters focused on Aidan before he meets up with the other two made sense. Including his point of view also facilitated adding more world-building and details about the stakes.

    Aidan also decided to tell me an important dark secret which I could then show to the reader to add more of his internal conflict. It makes him a lot more interesting, especially in his interactions with my morally grey assassin Alonso. They’re getting to know each other and I think it’s going to be very interesting going forward.

    So really, I had no choice but to upgrade him to a full main character with his own chapters and tell more of his story. I’m excited to see where this ends up taking him, alongside my other characters. I am having a lot of fun putting it together. I’m hoping to have it ready for beta readers very soon.

    My Advice to Other Writers

    If your characters are taking control of your story and the original plan no longer feels right, I would let it happen. Your best work will come by letting the story tell itself so forcing yourself to stick to the original outline can weaken your story.

    I think planning can be a helpful tool to structure your writing and keep your story on track. But it doesn’t have to be rigid and set in stone. Characters can take on a mind of their own, but do you know what that means? That means they’re well developed and becoming who they are supposed to be. So if your characters take control, you might be surprised how much better your story is if you let them.

    Have your characters taken control? Let me know your thoughts, and subscribe below if you want to see more. Every week I’ll be sharing some insights into my writing process or talking about a related subject.

  • Physical Effects of Mental Health: Neurotransmitters

    Physical Effects of Mental Health: Neurotransmitters

    There are many physical effects of our mental health. Neurotransmitters play a huge role in mental and cognitive functions. A lot of people separate mental and physical health issues, and mental health still carries a lot of stigma.

    Scientific background: image of a brain with text 'Mental health matters' then more text 'physical effects of mental health.'

    “It’s all in your head!”

    Except, that doesn’t make it any less real. Mental health problems are real, important and worthy of the same consideration. Neurotransmitters affect nearly all parts of the body in some fashion, which means that mental health issues do have physical effects.

    The full relationship is unclear, whether changes in brain chemistry cause the symptoms and behavioural changes. Or the symptoms and behavioural changes cause the changes in brain chemistry.

    Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that cross the synapses and bind to receptors to send messages between the neurons and end organs. They either stimulate or inhibit depending on the receptor type. This subject is complex, so we’re going to fous on the important neurotransmitters that matter the most in mental health disorders.

    Serotonin

    A very important neurotransmitter, serotonin is known as 5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT. It is a monoamine neurotransmitter produced by the gastrointestinal tract. Enterochromaffin cells release serotonin, which is synthesised from tryptophan in dietary proteins.

    Serotonin regulates mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory and sleep. It also regulates the digestive system, including appetite, vomiting and other digestive processes. It also acts on the blood vessels to manage blood pressure.

    Excessive levels of serotonin result in serotonin syndrome, a serious and potentially life-threatening condition. Overdose or certain combinations of drugs put a patient at risk of serotonin syndrome. For example, combining an SSRI (Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) and an MAOI (Monoamine oxidase inhibitor) together. However, serotonin receptors make up important targets for all kinds of pharmaceuticals, including but not limited to mood disorders, anti-emetics (stop vomiting/nausea) and migraine treatments.

    Dopamine

    Known as the ‘pleasure chemical’, dopamine plays many roles in the body. It is a catecholamine neurotransmitter produced in the brain. There are many dopamine pathways, the most important and well known being the ‘reward-motivated behaviour’.

    Anticipation of a reward increases dopamine levels, as do pleasurable experiences. Dopamine plays a role in motor control and managing the release of a number of hormones. Addictive drugs affect dopamine levels and reinforce the cravings and addiction.

    Parkinson’s disease involves the loss of dopamine producing cells in the brain, causing the symptoms of the disease. Dopamine plays important roles in schizophrenia and ADHD as well.

    Dopamine acts as a stimulant to treat low blood pressure, slow heart rates and cardiac arrest, especially useful in newborns. Amphetamines increase dopamine levels in the brain, hence their use in treatment of ADHD, which improves quality of life for lots of people.

    Norepinephrine

    You may know this one as ‘noradrenaline’, both terms are correct but norepinephrine is the general international standard. It is a catecholamine with endocrine (hormone) functions as well. It plays a role in the ‘fight or flight’ response by increasing alertness, vigilance, enchancing memory functions and focusing attention.

    Adrenergic receptors respond to norepinephrine and are a common target for medications. Stimulants increase the amount of norepinephrine. Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and amphetamines fit into this category. Antagonistic drugs include beta-blockers which are prescribed to manage anxiety by reducing the heart-rate.

    Stress and anxiety, both acute and chronic, increase the levels of norepinephrine alongside other signalling molecules like epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol. Norepinephrine function may also play a role in ADHD. Lack of REM sleep increases norepinephrine secretion and leads to degeneration of the nervous system.

    GABA

    Gamma-aminobutyric acid, the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in adult mammalian central nervous systems. Growing animals require it for brain development. The pancreatic beta-islet cells produce GABA to inhibit glucagon secretion.

    Many drugs target GABA receptors, including most commonly used anaesthetic drugs like propofol and barbiturates. GABA analogues like pregabalin and gabapentin have anti-convulsant effects and pain management functions.

    Glutamate

    Glutamic acid, an amino acid that humans can produce in the body. This means it’s not an essential amino acid. GABA synthesis uses glutamate as a precursor. It plays a role in learning and memory functions.

    Ketamine modulates glutamate and has proven beneficial in treating depression, especially treatment-resistant depression.

    Glutamate and its salts are a flavour enhancing compound, found in many foods. It gives an umami, or savoury, flavour in foods. A well-known example, monosodium glutamate (MSG) was unfairly maligned in the past.

    MSG naturally occurs in fermented or aged foods like soy sauce, fermented bean paste such as miso, and cheese. MSG is also an additive used in food production. The controversy around it is based in racism against East Asian people. You can eat it, it’s safe.

    Acetylcholine

    An important neurotransmitter, acetylcholine is an ester of acetic acid and choline, the body parts that it affects are called cholinergic. Acetylcholine activates the muscles via the motor neurons, as well as a vital role in the autonomic nervous system. Especially the parasympathetic nervous system.

    In the brain, it is involved in arousal, attention, memory and motivation. Toxins from plants, animals and bacteria act on cholinergic receptors to deactivate or hyperactivate them, causing paralysis.

    Atropine acts on muscarinic cholinergic receptors to treat heart and eye conditions, but excessive doses are toxic. Nicotine acts on nicotinic cholinergic receptors in the brain, which is why nicotine is so powerfully addictive.

    Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder where antibodies against the acetylcholine receptors cause muscle weakness and fatigue, which is often progressive. In addition, acetylcholine is involved in cognitive decline, Alzheimer’s disease and may also play a role in mood disorders, schizophrenia and ADHD.

    Conclusion

    This summary of neurotransmitters will help as we discuss common mental health disorders and the impact they have on the body. All of these chemical messengers facilitate physical and physiological effects on us.

    We need to discuss mental health more often, reduce the stigma around it and educate people. It’s important, yet often subject to misunderstanding and willful ignorance. Come back next week when we will discuss depression. Thanks for reading! Here’s a short summary of these neurotransmitters and their effects.

  • Blood Sugar Regulation Hormones

    Blood Sugar Regulation Hormones

    Image titled blood sugar regulation. Contains image of chemical formula of glucose, an insulin vial, a bag of sugar and a pair of hands using a glucometer.

    The body needs energy to function. This energy must be obtained from food, processed and metabolised so it is ready for the cells to use. Glucose, a sugar molecule, makes up the most important energy source. The brain alone uses 20% of the glucose produced by the body.

    Like many other factors, blood glucose must be maintained at the correct levels for everything to function as it should. Blood glucose and blood sugar are the same thing, so we’ll use ‘glucose’ going forward. The two main hormones oppose each other to maintain the balance of blood glucose.

    Important Definitions

    Glucose: a small sugar molecule the body uses for energy to function.

    Glycogen: a long branched molecule, made up of glucose molecules. It acts as storage of energy for later use, mainly in the liver and skeletal muscles.

    Glycogenolysis: the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

    Glycogenesis: the creation of glycogen from glucose. Don’t mix these two up!

    Gluconeogenesis: the process of making glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as fats and proteins.

    Hypoglycaemia: low blood glucose.

    Hyperglycaemia: high blood glucose. Don’t mix these two up, check your prefixes!

    Insulin: The Anabolic Hormone

    The hormone insulin controls anabolism: the storage and utilisation of energy. Insulin secretion takes place in the beta-cells of the islets of Langerhands, within the pancreas. It promotes glucose uptake from the blood into the body cells. It also promotes glycogenesis and fat generation, in other words, the storage of energy.

    High blood glucose levels stimulate insulin secretion by the pancreas, with the aim of reducing blood glucose to normal again. For this reason, insulin follows a cycle where it is released shortly after a meal to store away the energy from food.

    Most people have heard of diabetes mellitus, an endocrine disease involving insulin function. There are two main types of diabetes mellitus, which I am specifying because there is another kind of diabetes that is less well known, diabetes insipidus. So, let’s look at the details of diabetes mellitus.

    Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

    An autoimmune condition, the immune system attacks the beta-cells in the pancreatic islets. Insulin production is halted or massively reduced, which is why T1 diabetics need to inject insulin regularly to manage their blood glucose. The result is excessively high blood glucose.

    Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

    This form is much more complex and still not completely understood. Various risk factors contribute to reduction of beta-cells and insulin resistance. The cells don’t respond to insulin like they should and take up glucose from the blood. Increased glucagon secretion, unresponsive to blood glucose, could also be a factor.

    The end result is a persistent hyperglycaemia which results in the symptoms of diabetes. We’ll cover the details of this later.

    Glucagon: The Catabolic Hormone

    Glucagon opposes insulin, counteracting all of its effects. The alpha-cells of the pancreatic islets produce glucagon in response to low blood glucose. Glucagon raises blood glucose and fatty acids, stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. In other words, taking glucose out of storage and making more of it.

    Excessive glucagon levels contributes a lot to the development of hyperglycaemic ketoacidosis in undiagnosed or poorly managed type 1 diabetics. Ketoacidosis (DKA) becomes a diabetic coma if untreated and is life-threatening.

    The Effects of Hyperglycaemia

    An excessively high blood glucose impacts almost all of the body in some way. The main symptoms of diabetes mellitus include the triad of polyphagia, polydipsia and polyuria. Polyphagia means increased appetite or eating more than normal. Polydipsia means increased thirst or drinking more than normal. Polyuria means producing more urine than normal, referring to volume rather than frequency. That said, a higher volume of urine will typically increase the frequency of urination.

    Other symptoms include vision changes, fatigue, weight changes, poor wound healing, neuropathy (tingling in legs and feet), recurrent infections, coma and seizures.

    As mentioned before, ketoacidosis is a life-threatening complication of persistently high blood glucose levels. When the cells can’t use glucose, they produce ketone bodies to make energy from instead. These ketones make the blood more acidic and cause damage. Some people can smell the ketones, usually described as a ‘fruity’ smell or like nail polish. I personally can’t smell ketones very well.

    Other diseases cause hyperglycaemia including other endocrine disorders, sepsis and brain pathology. Certain medications also affect blood glucose, particularly certain steroids, beta-blockers, statins and antipsychotics.

    Stress impacts blood glucose, as the physiology of stress prepares the body for fight or flight, including making energy available. Stress induced hyperglycaemia matters a lot in cats, because they show extreme changes in blood glucose when stressed. For this reason, diagnosing diabetes mellitus in cats is not straightforward.

    Most cats are stressed simply visiting the vet, especially if a blood sample is taken, so one high glucose result in a cat means nothing. Further testing needs to be done to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes.

    The Effects of Hypoglycaemia

    Hypoglycaemia is more immediately life-threatening than hyperglycaemia. Symptoms of low blood sugar include headaches, confusion, light-headedness, heart palpitations, anxiety, nausea and tremors. Severely low blood sugar causes seizures, loss of consciousness and even death.

    The brain relies on glucose for energy, with no other option available to the cells. Hence the neurological symptoms and risk of seizures and brain damage.

    Excessive insulin causes hypoglycaemia, whether it is an accidental overdose, not eating after taking insulin, being injected with insulin when not diabetic or an insulinoma. Insulinomas are tumours of the pancreatic islet cells and while benign, they produce insulin in an uncontrolled way.

    Adrenal disease like Addison’s disease (hypoadrenocorticism), sepsis (glucose stores are used up) and other serious illnesses can cause low blood sugar too. Alcohol consumption, fasting and intense exercise, especially if diabetic will risk hypoglycaemia. Starvation, including eating disorders and neglect as well.

    Xylitol, the artificial sweetener, causes a rapid release of insulin in dogs. This results in hypoglycaemia and liver damage. Xylitol only affects dogs in this manner, but it is a common ingredient in gum, mints, peanut butter, medications, supplements, sunscreen, toiletries and cosmetics. Dog owners, beware because xylitol toxicity is an emergency and needs rapid treatment.

    Thanks for reading! April’s themes will be the physical impact of mental health problems on Mondays, and cats on Fridays for our Creature Features! Subscribe for updates when new posts are live. See you soon!

    Emma Stewart Writes

    Proudly powered by WordPress

  • Rodents for Writers: Squirrels

    Rodents for Writers: Squirrels

    Rodents for writers: squirrels. The final part of the series on common rodents, to help writers better understand them. This time we’re covering the other major class of rodents, the squirrel family of rodents.

    This family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (chipmunks and prairie dogs) and flying squirrels. The focus of this article is the most common tree squirrels. The eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris).

    Biology

    Squirrels eat tree bark, buds, flowers, berries, seeds, acorns, nuts, fungi and truffles as the main part of their diet. They will forage from garden crops like wheat, tomatoes, corn and strawberries and eat insects, frogs, small rodents, small birds and eggs, making them omnivores.

    In urban areas they will raid bins and trash cans and steal food from bird feeders in people’s gardens. They stash excess food away in the ground or inside trees for later. These stashes are known as ‘middens’, although they sometimes lose track of them.

    Since they are rodents, their incisors are open-rooted and grow continuously, while their molars do not. Squirrels have sharp claws to grip tree bark and climb, gray squirrels can even turn their hind feet in order to climb down a tree head first. Unlike most other climbing animals, who are incapable of doing this.

    Their long fluffy tails help them with balance and steering when climbing and running, as well as being adorable. Squirrels build nests in trees or take over abandoned bird nests, which they then line with moss, dry grass and feathers for warmth.

    Interestingly, in warm weather, squirrels exhibit a behaviour, they ‘sploot’ or lie flat on the ground with their limbs spread out. Apparently, this helps them lose heat.

    a grey squirrel splooting on a path, lying face down to keep itself cool
    FASTILY, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    Invasive Species and Conservation

    Gray squirrels were introduced to the UK in the 1870s from North America. They quickly established themselves across England, Wales and southern Scotland. Unfortunately, they displaced the native red squirrels by taking over habitats, competing for food sources and transmitting squirrel pox. The squirrel pox virus is often fatal to the red squirrels, however, it doesn’t harm the gray squirrels.

    A red squirrel crouching at the base of a tree.
    hedera.baltica from Wrocław, Poland, CC BY-SA 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    Because of this, conservation programs were implemented to protect the native red squirrels and the population has stabilised in Scotland and on the Isle of Wight.

    Culture, Mythology and Folklore

    In Norse mythology, a red squirrel plays an important role. Ratatoskr runs up and down the world-tree Yggdrasil, bringing messages between the hawk at the top of the tree and the dragon at the roots.

    Beatrix Potter’s children’s literature features many UK native wildlife species. Squirrel Nutkin the red squirrel features in her works. Denmark’s national mammal is the red squirrel.

    Thank you for reading, I hope you enjoyed this series. Stay tuned for next months themes, I’m excited to bring you more useful content in April. I’m also participating in a new writing challenge, ZAPWHAMPOW. For updates, follow my socials.

    Proudly powered by WordPress

  • RAAS and Thyroid Hormones

    RAAS and Thyroid Hormones

    The RAAS system and thyroid hormones play an essential role in managing metabolism, blood pressure and fluid balance. These hormones regulate electrolytes, water retention and metabolic rate.

    RAAS

    The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system involves several organs and plays an essential role in maintaining blood pressure. A drop in blood flow to the kidneys activates the RAAS to increase blood pressure and maintain filtration in the kidneys.

    Soupvector, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

    The kidneys convert circulating prorenin into renin in response to reduced renal blood flow. Renin converts angiotensinogen, produced in the liver, into angiotensin I. The lungs contain ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) which converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II.

    Angiotensin II degrades into angiotensin III which stimulates aldosterone secretion from the adrenal cortex. Angiotensin III increases the blood pressure while angiotensin II narrows the blood vessels (vasoconstriction.)

    Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone increases sodium and water retention, as well as potassium excretion. This keeps the electrolytes (salts) in balance and keeps water in the circulation to increase blood pressure.

    This system has several potential drug targets for treating hypertension (high blood pressure), heart disease, kidney failure and diabetes. Examples include ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers and renin inhibitors.

    Activation of RAAS

    Any loss in blood volume or drop in blood pressure triggers the RAAS, such as dehydration or significant haemorrhage. The system raises blood pressure and improves blood flow in the kidney’s glomeruli.

    It also triggers the release of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin which controls water reabsorption and retention in the kidneys. ADH also acts on the brain to increase appetite for salt and thirst for water.

    Thyroid Hormones

    The thyroid gland is located in the neck, just below the larynx. It typically has two lobes, one on each side, with a pair of parathyroid glands on each side as well. The term ‘goitre’ means an enlargement of the thyroid gland which you can feel, or even see if it is large enough. A goitre does not always mean a tumour or cancer.

    The two main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). They are created from tyrosine and iodine, the only function iodine has in the body. The thyroid hormones increase basal metabolic rate, absorption rate in the gut and fat breakdown. They also increase heart rate, oxygen consumption and play a role in growth and brain development.

    Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Release

    Like others we’ve discussed, the hypothalamus controls release of thyroid hormones. It secretes thryotropin releasing hormone (TRH) which stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH then acts on the thyroid gland to produce T3 and T4. The thyroid hormones have a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to stop further hormone release.

    Thyroid Disorders

    Thyroid disorders are fairly common in humans. Hyperthyroidism (excess thyroid hormones) is extremely common in elderly cats. Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) is common in dogs.

    Hyperthyroidism means excess production of T3 and T4. Grave’s disease and thyroid adenoma are common causes. In cats, a benign thyroid adenoma produces excess thyroid hormones, ignoring the normal regulatory system the body has.

    Symptoms of hyperthyroidism include unexplained weight loss, hair loss, an increased appetite, fast heart rate and stress or restlessness. It can be treated with drugs that suppress thyroid function, radioactive iodine (I-131) therapy or surgery to remove part/all of the thyroid (partial or total thyroidectomy.)

    Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid. Remember the terminology series: hyper- means too high, hypo- means too low. An underactive thyroid is common in dogs and in humans. Iodine deficiency is a common cause, as is an autoimmune disease such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis.

    Symptoms of hypothyroidism include weight gain that is difficult to lose, fatigue, constipation, hair loss, a slow heart rate and myxoedema. Myxoedema is abnormal swelling in limbs or the face, and is a type of non-pitting oedema. Pitting oedema means if you press it with a finger, the dent remains. Non-pitting oedema obviously means it doesn’t.

    Treatment for hypothyroid conditions includes immune modulating treatments, iodine supplements and replacement thyroid hormone like levothyroxine.

    Axolotls

    Axolotls are odd little creatures. They exist in a state of arrested development, never moving beyond the juvenile phase of the life cycle. This happens because they lack iodine and cannot produce thyroxine. They can reproduce but they retain their gills and remain fully aquatic.

    They are also capable of regenerating lost limbs. If they are treated with thyroid hormone or exposed to idone, they metamorphose into salamanders. However, they don’t survive well if this happens.

    Conclusion

    These complex systems are often misunderstood but they are important to maintain the body’s physiology as it should be. Next week we’ll cover the remaining systems, insulin and parathyroid hormones.

    Proudly powered by WordPress

  • Rodents for Writers: Guinea Pigs

    Rodents for Writers: Guinea Pigs

    Rodents for writers: guinea pigs. Today we’re going to be discussing my favourite rodent species, guinea pigs. Cavia porcellus – the domestic guinea pig, sometimes known as ‘cavy’ as well. The name is misleading, they don’t come from Guinea and are not related to pigs.

    Guinea pigs originate from the Andes region of South America. European traders brought them to North America and Europe in the 16th century. They quickly became popular pets, even Queen Elizabeth I kept them!

    Biology

    Guinea pigs are relatively large rodents in the hystricomorph group of rodents. This group includes capybaras, chinchillas and degus. Guinea pig keepers developed many different breeds such as the long haired Peruvian and the hairless ‘skinny pig’.

    Guinea pigs live in herds, with a boar, several sows and their pups. They are herbivores and graze on grasses and vegetation. The digestive system is similar to rabbits and horses, with a well developed caecum full of microbes that break down the fibre of their diet. Guinea pigs practice caecotrophy, where they pass caecal contents and eat them again to get nutrients produced by their gut microbiome.

    Unlike rats and mice, all of the teeth are open rooted and growing constantly, requiring constant use on tough fibre to keep them from overgrowing. Like humans, and unlike most mammals, guinea pigs cannot produce their own vitamin C and need a dietary source of it to avoid scurvy.

    They don’t have good eyesight but there is a wide angle of vision and partial colour vision. Their hearing and sense of smell are well developed though. Sensitive whiskers help them navigate when vision is poor.

    Behaviour

    Guinea pigs learn and remember complex paths and can be trained and tamed easily. However, they lack good climbing skills and jumping skills. They can swim but dislike being wet.

    As prey animals, they are easily startled and may freeze or run for cover if they sense a threat. On the other hand, if they are excited in a good way, they do little hops known as ‘popcorning’.

    Guinea pigs use a vast array of vocalisations and sounds to express themselves, including wheeks, purrs and shrieks. They are very vocal animals and almost always have something to say!

    Reproduction

    Unlike most rodents whose newborns are helpless, guinea pig pups are precocious and well developed when born. They can walk, see and even eat solid food on day one of life. They do still suckle for a few weeks though. I always joked it was because they are cooked for longer! The gestation period lasts about nine weeks, similar to dogs.

    Domestication and Husbandry

    Guinea pigs should be kept in groups, at least two if not more. Neutering the males helps reduce fighting and prevent pregnancy. In fact, Switzerland made it illegal to keep a single guinea pig alone. They even have a service where you can rent a guinea pig as a temporary companion to replace a dead cage mate. How cute is that?

    Guinea pigs should not be housed with other rodents. People keep them with rabbits but this is not recommended. Rabbits carry two bacteria: Bordetella bronchiseptica and Pasteurella multocida. These bacteria cause severe respiratory disease and guinea pigs are especially susceptible.

    Guinea Pigs In Society

    Pets

    Guinea pigs make great pets because they are docile, calm and rarely bite. They are easy to tame and enjoy human companionship. In my opinion, compared to rabbits they are far better suited as pets for younger children. The long haired varieties need regular grooming though.

    Science

    The phrase ‘be a guinea pig’ refers to being a subject of experimentation or trial. Scientific research used guinea pigs for a long time, since the 17th century. They are ideal models for a number of health conditions. That’s why the phrase is used in this fashion.

    Andean Folklore and Traditions

    Guinea pigs play a huge role in Andean traditions, including traditional healing rituals, ceremonies, spoken metaphors and even as gifts.

    In Peru, guinea pigs play a role in religious events and the culture. They celebrate National Guinea Pig Day on the second Friday of October every year. South Americans rear guinea pigs for their meat and commonly eat them too.

    Pop Culture and the Media

    Literature

    Guinea pigs feature in literature a lot, especially children’s literature like the works of Beatrix Potter and C S Lewis. The short story ‘Pigs is Pigs’, written by Ellis Parker Butler, is about two guinea pigs reproducing while humans argue about what they are for freight charges. This story inspired the well-known Star Trek episode ‘The Trouble With Tribbles’.

    Film and TV

    Eddie Murphy starred in Dr Dolittle movies where a pet guinea pig by the name of Rodney played a big role. Rodney, voiced by Chris Rock, provided a lot of comic relief in those movies.

    One of my personal favourites, South Park season 12 featured two episodes about Peru. Pandemic (episode 10) and Pandemic 2: The Startling (episode 11) included giant guinea pigs dressed in costumes rampaging through South Park.

    Conclusion

    Guinea pigs make great pets because they are intelligent, sociable and expressive. I adore guinea pigs, I had them growing up and one of my favourite patients was a guinea pig. He used to leap into my arms from the table when he came to see me.

    It’s obvious why they are so popular. Their cute little faces, their vocalisations and their antics. They hold importance to the cultures of many people in the Andes region of South America. Guinea pigs should feature more in media, in my opinion.

    Thank you for reading rodents for writers, guinea pigs and I hope it helped. I know a lot about guinea pigs and I’m always happy to answer any questions about them, or any animal. Don’t forget to subscribe for updates when a new post goes live. For more rodents, see my posts on rats and mice. See you soon!

    Proudly powered by WordPress

  • Gonads And Sex Hormones

    Gonads And Sex Hormones

    This endocrine system involves the gonads and sex hormones, known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis or HPG axis. The HPG axis holds high importance for the survival of the species, without it extinction would be inevitable.

    The HPG axis controls development, the reproduction system and aging in animals. It also regulates the immune system and has roles in metabolism, mood regulation and behaviours.

    So as you can see, this axis involves the hypothalamus signalling the pituitary which then signals the gonads: the ovaries or testes depending on sex. Bear in mind that the hormone cycle varies significantly depending on species, sex and natural variations between individuals.

    Some Notes on Sex, Hormones and Gender

    The biological processes described here are the typical and most commonly seen. It does not account for variations of intersex people. Nor how the system works if altered by external factors like hormone replacement therapy, misuse of anabolic steroids (never a good idea) and other medical interventions.

    This does of course include transgender people who may be medically transitioning so their body aligns with their gender. A brief reminder that I do not tolerate transphobia on my platforms. Gender and biological sex are not the same thing. Biology always has exceptions to the ‘standard’ and that is why I never use the term ‘normal.’ Interestingly, Harley Quinn from Suicide Squad puts it well: “Normal is a setting on the drier.”

    A final note for my international readers: I use British English spelling and that includes certain hormones we are discussing today. I will include the American English spelling in [square brackets] to prevent confusion.

    Sex Hormones

    Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

    Starting at the top, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) starts the process. The hypothalamus secrets GnRH which travels down to the anterior pituitary to stimulate it to produce the gonadotropin hormones. The clue’s in the name! The sex hormones provide a negative feedback look to inhibit GnRH secretion.

    Lutenising Hormone (LH)

    The anterior pituitary releases lutenising hormone (LH) in response to GnRH. LH is a gonadotropin, which means it stimulates the gonads: the ovaries and the testes. LH and FSH work synergistically. In males LH stimulates the Leydig cells, part of the testes, to produce testosterone.

    In females an acute surge of LH triggers ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum. Corpus luteum translates from Latin as the ‘yellow body’ and is what is left of the follicle once ovulation has occurred. The egg then travels into the Fallopian tube.

    Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

    Unsurprisingly, follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates the ovarian follicles. Sometimes it’s better to use a name that is clear and self-explanatory, you know? FSH regulates grown, puberty and the reproductive processes.

    In both sexes, FSH stimulates maturation of the primordial germ cells. The germ cells go on to become the ‘gametes’ i.e. ova (eggs) and sperm. In females it stimulates growth of the follicle around the egg and development in preparation for ovulation.

    In males, FSH induces the Sertoli cells within the testes, to produce androgen-binding proteins. These proteins concentrate testosterone within the testes for spermatogenesis, sperm production.

    Oestrogens (Estrogens)

    Several oestrogens are produced but oestradiol (estradiol or E2) is the preominant one during the reproductive years. One of the sex hormones, oestradiol plays numerous roles in the body.

    Oestrogens regulate metabolism and fat distribution in the body. It also increases bone formation, and this is why post-menopausal AFAB people are at a higher risk of osteoporosis. Oestrogens also mediate the formation of secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development.

    Oestrogen prepares the reproductive tract for sex and implantation of a fertilised egg. It also triggers the LH surge which then triggers ovulation. In other animals, sexual receptivity during oestrus (estrus/heat) requires oestrogen. It may also play a role in mental health, especially around menstruation and pregnancy. For example, post-partum depression often improves once oestrogen levels stabilise again.

    Progestagens

    Progesterone is the most important of these sex hormones and has many functions. Progesterone maintains the uterus and placenta during pregnancy. The corpus luteum produces progesterone after ovulation, until the placenta can take over.

    In humans, if no pregnancy occurs, progesterone levels drop which causes menstruation. In other animals, different processes occur. Progesterone levels are linked to breast cancer in humans.

    In dogs it is well documented as well, because of the way the reproductive cycle works in female dogs. Dogs have a long luteal phase with high progesterone levels for the same length of time regardless of whether they are pregnant.

    This is why no blood test can diagnose pregnancy in dogs and why they are so prone to phantom pregnancies as well. In un-spayed female dogs, 50-70% of all tumours are mammary tumours. Early spaying reduces the risk but advice on how early to spay is varied and should account for breed, size and potential risks of spaying too early. Discuss the matter with your vet.

    Testosterone

    Testosterone is an androgen sex hormone. It manages the development of male reproductive tissues, sexondary sexual characteristics of males and many other functions. It is important for muscle and bone mass, metabolism and behaviour.

    While in the uterus at 4-6 weeks gestation, testosterone begins the differentiation of tissues into male parts instead of female. The SRY gene, on the Y chromosome, is necessary for this. Later in pregnancy, testosterone works with anti-Müllerian hormone to further develop male features.

    Of course, testosterone manages male puberty and the development of secondary sexual characteristics. It regulates and promotes sperm production. Sufferers of PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome) produce excess testosterone, which causes many of the symptoms of the disorder.

    Conclusion

    This is a brief rundown of the main sex hormones and their effect on the gonads. The reproductive system varies massively between species and humans are very different from other mammals. Remember that all bodies will produce some level of all of these hormones and that hormones are not the whole story.

    Many disorders around these hormones exist, which explains the reason for intersex people and people whose chromosomes and hormones don’t line up with their gender presentation. Biology loves variety and there are always exceptions to the rules.

    Thanks for reading! Feel free to ask any questions in the comments. See you next time!

    Proudly powered by WordPress

  • Rodents for Writers: Mice

    Rodents for Writers: Mice

    Biology of Mice

    Welcome to Rodents for Writers: Mice. The next part of my creature features series focusing on rodents for March.

    Mice, like rats, are in the order Rodentia and the family Muridae. Lots of different species exist in the world but the most relevant to us is the house mouse Mus musculus. They live in the wild but find it beneficial to live around human society.

    People keep mice as pets, domesticated and bred to have a myriad of coat colours. Laboratories use domestic mice as model organisms for biology and medical research.

    A small species with a body length of 7.5 – 10cm and a tail length of 5 – 10cm, short single coats and very little hair on the ears and tail. Mice have good skills including jumping, climbing and swimming.

    Mice adapt to and live in all kinds of conditions, inside buildings, open fields and woodlands. They get into houses very easily and seek the warmth during the autumn and winter months. Mice are crepuscular, more active at night than during the day. They avoid bright light.

    Mice eat plant material but they are omnivores and will eat other things including meat. They exhibit coprophagia, eating their own faeces, in order to get nutrients that are produced by their gut microbiome. Of course, mice are a common prey species for cats, dogs, birds of prey, snakes and other carnivores.

    Their social structure depends on the availability of food and shelter. Groups of females exhibit co-operative parenting, sharing responsibility for all the offspring. Males are territorial and aggressive to competitors.

    Senses

    Mice have vision similar to rats, they are dichromats, only having two kinds of cone colour receptors. Humans have three. They do have ultraviolet sensitive cones, allowing them to see UV light. Scientists genetically engineered mice to have the third type of cone to see a wider range of colours.

    Pheromones form an essential part of communication for mice, so they have a strong sense of smell. The vomeronasal organ (Jacobson’s organ) plays a big role in this, its function is to detect pheromones and communicate with the brain.

    The vibrissae (whiskers) allow mice to sense surfaces and air movements, even in poor lighting. The whiskers connect directly to nerves and are extremely sensitive.

    Lifespan

    Wild mice live less than a year on average due to predation and exposure to harsh environments. Domesticated mice average two to three years. The record for longest life of a domestic mouse is just a few days shy of five years. In my experience, mice average two years of life when well cared for.

    History of Mice and Humans

    Mice have lived around humans for a long time, invading food stores and homes. Cats domestication is in part because of the presence of mice in our homes and businesses. Explorers and colonisers spread mice across the world on their ships.

    Mice as Pets

    The earliest recorded mention of mice as pets comes from Erya, the oldest Chinese dictionary from 1100 B.C. In the modern world, mice breeders have created many ‘fancy’ mice with different colouration and a docile temperament.

    Mice are also bred as food for carnivorous pets like snakes and birds of prey. Just to note that feeding live rodents is illegal in the UK. This is for the welfare of both the rodents and the predator animals. Mice can injure snakes if they are not eaten immediately.

    Pests and Pestilence

    One of the most common household and commercial pests, mice take advantage of food being left out and the warmth of our homes. They get in through tiny spaces and nest in dark places.

    Mice contaminate food, spread parasites like fleas and can transmit infectious diseases like leptospirosis. Rats are more important for disease transmission but mice still pose a risk. Mice are an invasive species in many places including New Zealand.

    Laboratory Mice

    Scientists use mice more commonly than any other mammal in laboratories. This is because mice are so similar to humans. The ‘transgenic mice’ are genetically modified in order to study specific pathology or for drug development. They form an essential part of oncology, the study of cancers. So it has nothing to do with transgender people. Not every word with ‘trans-‘ in it is related to being transgender.

    Culture

    Mice feature in children’s stories and visual media a lot. They are definitely treated better than rats are, as well. The most famous example is of course the mascot of the Walt Disney Company: Mickey Mouse.

    Beatrix Potter wrote several stories featuring mice. Other examples include Basil the Great Mouse Detective, Stuart Little and Jerry from Tom and Jerry. In Roald Dahl’s The Witches, a child is turned into a mouse. I bet you can think of many more examples.

    Thanks for reading this edition of rodents for writers: mice. I hope you enjoyed it. Let me know what you think, feel free to get in touch with any questions.

    Proudly powered by WordPress

  • The Stress Hormone: Cortisol

    The Stress Hormone: Cortisol

    The ‘stress hormone’ cortisol is extremely important for managing and regulating the body’s response to stress. Cortisol regulates metabolism, the response to stress and the immune system. The adrenal glands release cortisol, regulated by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland in the brain.

    Adrenal Glands

    The paired adrenal glands live just above each kidney and are directly connected to part of the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal medulla produces adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine), both of which play a role in the ‘fight or flight’ response. Read more about that system here.

    The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids, of which cortisol is the most important. The hypothalamus regulates cortisol secretion via the HPA axis, the hypothalamus—pituitary—adrenal cortex axis. A negative feedback loop maintains cortisol at an appropriate level.

    The hypothalamus releases CRH – corticotropin releasing hormone. This stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH – adrenocorticotropic hormone. ACTH reaches the adrenal glands and causes cortisol secretion. Cortisol levels feed back into the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to reduce secretion of CRH and ACTH, keeping cortisol levels where they need to be.

    Role of the HPA Axis

    This system maintains homeostasis in the body by regulating metabolism, the cardiovascular system, immune system, reproductive system and the central nervous system. That’s a lot of jobs! Serious illness results from this system going wrong.

    Cortisol

    A glucocorticoid or ‘steroid’ hormone, cortisol is the stress hormone. It follows a diurnal cycle, increasing after waking, slowly dropping until late afternoon. It then resurges before dropping to its lowest point in the middle of the night.

    Pharmaceutical versions include hydrocortisone, prednisolone and several other ‘corticosteroids’. Applications include treating inflammation, managing autoimmune disorders, chemotherapy and treating allergies.

    The Effects of Cortisol

    Glucose Metabolism

    Cortisol stimulates glucose synthesis and the breakdown of glycogen in the muscles. It also increases the breakdown of fats and blocks insulin. It causes insulin resistance in an effort to increase blood glucose levels, i.e. blood sugar.

    Immune System

    Cortisol reduces the immune response, the inflammation cascade and reduces T-cell growth. That means it is immunosuppressive. This is why pharmaceutical steroids are used to treat immune-mediated and autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, eczema and allergies.

    Cortisol delays wound healing, because it suppresses inflammation. The inflammation process plays a role in healing of wounds, whether injuries or surgical. Steroid treatment is withdrawn prior to surgery whenever possible, for this reason.

    Electrolytes and Water Homeostasis

    Cortisol increases GFR (glomerular filtration rate), in other words, function of the kidneys. It causes excretion of phosphate and potassium, along with water and sodium retention. Too much cortisol or not enough cortisol will cause electrolyte disturbances.

    Cortisol also stimulates secretion of stomach acid, which explains why chronic stress causes problems like heartburn and stomach ulcers. People who are stressed for a long time have high ciruclating cortisol levels.

    Memory

    Cortisol combined with adrenaline stimulates memories of short-term emotional evens in order to ensure we avoid the same thing in future. This effect is part of how trauma affects the mind and body in the long term. It is absolutely a factor in the development of PTSD.

    Long term exposure to excess cortisol damages the hippocampus, the part of the brain essential for storing long term memories and learning. This means excess cortisol impairs the ability to learn.

    Pregnancy

    During pregnancy, cortisol plays two essential roles. At 30-32 weeks gestation, cortisol stimulates production of pulmonary surfactant. Surfactant allows the lungs to expand when the first breaths are taken after birth. Without it, the newborn cannot breathe. One of the byproducts of beef production is extracting this surfactant from the cow’s lungs. Cattle lung surfactant massively improved survival rates of premature babies.

    The second role is to stimulate parturition, to initiate labour. Foetal cortisol triggers conversion of progesterone to oestrogen which in turn stimulates prostaglandin secretion and oxytocin receptor development. Oxytocin is the hormone that stimulates contractions of the uterus. Because it reduces progesterone, treatment with steroids can induce miscarriage in early pregnancies.

    Stress

    So why does this matter? The adrenal glands function to help the body cope with stressors. Adrenaline and sympathetic nervous system is there for acute dangers and cortisol is there for longer term stresses. If you are writing about someone who has been living a stressful life, they will have high levels of cortisol which impacts their physiology.

    Cortisol increases insulin resistance and thus contributes to potential risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Research into this is ongoing and while stress or high cortisol alone isn’t enough to cause diabetes, it could be part of the complex of risk factors.

    Cortisol affects the immune system and impacts immune-mediated disease. Interestingly, cortisol can both suppress the immune system and over-activate it. We know that stress impacts autoimmune diseases.

    The HPA axis is regulated by dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine – neurotransmitters responsible for regulating mood and emotions. This connection shows how psychological stress impacts our physiology, and vice versa.

    Oxytocin down-regulates the HPA axis, reducing stress. Oxytocin is the ‘love hormone’, aside from its role in giving birth and milk let down in animals, it is released when we are close with people we love, including hugging and even during orgasm. So it proves that spending time with those we are close to can help reduce stress. This even applies to our pets!

    I talked previously about the term ‘psychosomatic’ discussed in the medical terminology series. Psychosomatic means that psychiatric changes, such as mental health disorders, have an impact on our physical bodies. It does not mean that your problems are ‘all in your head’ and not real. They are real, and mental distress has an impact on our physiology too.

    Proudly powered by WordPress